ŠĻą”±į>ž’ ž’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ż’’’ž’’’ž’’’ž’’’’’’’’’’’  !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’Root Entry’’’’’’’’`†ęŖĒĪ›DESTāÕ õ»ž’’’PerfectOffice_MAIN&’’’’’’’’qPerfectOffice_OBJECTS,’’’’’’’’’’’’@ŗĢ õ»@ŗĢ õ»’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’opyright£€(c)€1995€The€Institute€of€Baha'i€Studies,
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ń ńń ńĢń ńń ńĢń ńĢĢœŠĻą”±į>ž’ ž’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’ ŒUNœ %źš 0Žšw@~4¾Ņ mŌ#|xxÖĆ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(fžM$””ŌUKUS.,ŌŃTRWĻ6Į&A43Ų'Ļ6Į&A4’3Ų'TŃ E   U  UՃš!@Ź  ’U‹’ĄĄĄž’ ’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’WPCė qĮMÅÓQ}ķį—"į™6K$_}ķį˜Š¤På=ÉČŠŽ»ETlÅl˜ĶIw T™£*Ā2  öYĄ+K Ū ß¾Šš¾Ž(7ŠŲ–Y¬›¾š‘óŹ‚¢ģŠ4ł ~܊oėdLŲ#Ąå»ŁErel&Ÿa|#Ķ hū+üĒEv7ŗ5ōÜ¢żj_: ą= 3ŲM   !ģr’ļ;:§zg,Æ°Œćbc]sÅ_nŽ†;:HžVeō+8ĆŖ’T ¬€ś)˜? ĖŌ ²'”šMH³Ų©jXƒ¶ė¹³s{×:ģ$"ą.aŌD}gä~Õ+(—āĒ¢ŅČKč9#|T蝄$rŹ œÕõÖJØ_÷žÖ/įLĆ=§¬@·^ń!””’p\4325+ßxn+ģ˜pf¬5Ølåßw“l’·p,¤šē€}‘¦r9‡{Ū‚—H_q„ƒŃn¢A®W@–_Yž<ß"D»†ĖŽpƒ¢i‰é×·*Š§źJ’;¶bŸØÖņ¦˜(QŅīÖæ“Ļp$ƒÉm ĢaÉdM³K3’ßXšę:;WŖčG„ÓeVš2ńßM·X¢6Ń­R6ēĖoĒRg—Gż’‡XI2<ÕŹĻ9 ŒUNœ %źš 0Žšw@~4¾Ņ mŌ#|xxÖĆ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX(fžM$””ŌUKUS.,ŌŃTRWĻ6Į&A43Ų'Ļ6Į&A4’3Ų'TŃ E   U  UՃš!@Ź  ’U‹’ĄĄĄŻ ƒžM!ŻŌUKUS.,ŌŃTRWĻ6Į&A43Ų'Ļ6Į&A4’3Ų'TŃŻ  Ż›Š ° ŠĢ<¢title>ńńIrfan£€Colloquiumńńńń,€ńńńńńńBńńńńńńNewcastle,€Dec.€1995ńńńń,€AbsńńńńńńyńńńńńńtractsńńńńĢńńńńĢ€ĢńńĢĢ€Ģ<¢strong>Conference£€on€Anti-Baha'i€Polemic€€ĢĢsponsored€jointly€by€the€Association€for€Baha'i€¢StudiesĻ(English-Speaking€Europe)€Religious€Studies€Special€Interest€Group€
€and€the€Haj€¢Mehdi£Ļ¢Arjmand£€Memorial€Fund€€ĢĢin€cooperation€with€the€Institute€for€Baha'i€Studies,€¢Wilmette£€€ĢĢ€€€€€Newcastle€UniversityĢĢ€€Newcastle-Upon-¢Tyne£,€EnglandĢĢ€€€€€December€8-10,€1995ĢĢĢĢ¢Irfan£€ColloquiumĢĢĢEighth€SessionĢĢĢĢĢABSTRACTS€OF€PAPERS€PRESENTEDĢĢĢĢ------------------ĢĢĢ€The€Limits€of€Discourse€in€the€Baha'i€
€Community€and€theirĻConsequencesĢĢĢRobert€Stockman€ĢĢ

€€€€€All€human€communities€must€set€limits€on€their€internal€discourse€in€order€to€maintainĻcohesion€and€some€degree€of€internal€order.€The€Baha'i€Faith€is€no€exception.€The€limits€toŠ š0@,0 Šdiscourse€in€the€Baha'i€community€are€determined€by€the€overriding€principle€of€unity:Ļ'Abdu'l-¢Baha£€has€stressed€that€unity€is€more€important€than€being€right,€and€thus€disagreementĻand€arguments€are€greater€evils€than€being€united€in€error.€Baha'i€institutions€have€to€beĻobeyed,€in€theological€terms,€because€the€Universal€House€of€Justice€is€infallible;€or€put€inĻsociological€terms,€institutional€decisions€can€be€appealed€to€the€Universal€House€of€JusticeĻand€its€decisions€must€be€obeyed,€just€as€the€decisions€of€a€nation's€Supreme€Court€about€theĻmeaning€of€national€laws€must€be€obeyed.€Ģ

€€€€€Two€mechanisms€exist€in€the€Baha'i€community€to€enforce€obedience€to€institutions:ĻNational€Spiritual€Assemblies€may€level€administrative€sanctions€and€the€Universal€House€ofĻJustice€may€declare€someone€a€Covenant-breaker.€The€latter€is€a€far€more€serious€sanction,€forĻit€expels€the€individual€from€the€community.€Covenant-breakers€often€devote€considerableĻenergy€to€writing€books€describing€the€injustices€they€feel€Baha'i€communities€haveĻperpetrated€against€them.€Their€literature€has€formed€a€major€part€of€modern€anti-Baha'iĻliterature€or€literature€critical€of€the€Baha'i€community.€Generally,€the€best€solution€to€thisĻproblem€appears€to€be€serious€scholarly€research,€for€such€research€often€reveals€theĻself-centeredness€of€the€Covenant-breaker,€his€misrepresentation€of€information,€and€hisĻunwillingness€to€subordinate€personal€goals€and€desires,€or€personal€hurts,€for€the€greaterĻgood€of€the€Baha'i€Faith.€Ibrahim€¢Kheiralla£€is€a€good€case€study€in€this€regard.ĢĢ

€€€€€€Two€principles€define€boundaries€to€discourse€within€the€Baha'i€community:Ļprepublication€review€of€manuscripts€and€sanctioning€of€Baha'is€for€stirring€up€disunity.€BothĻhave€generated€various€degrees€of€external€criticism€of€the€Faith.€Prepublication€review€isĻnecessary€while€the€Baha'i€community€is€in€its€"infancy,"€a€stage€the€Universal€House€of€JusticeĻsays€the€Baha'i€community€is€still€in,€and€which€is€likely€to€continue€for€at€least€a€decade€orĻtwo.€Since€no€system€of€review€can€be€perfect,€there€will€always€be€some€reviewing€problems,Ļthough€they€can€be€reduced€if€the€Baha'is€demonstrate€more€trust€of€theirĢĢ<¢p>institutions£€and€appeal€¢unfavorable£€review€decisions€to€their€National€Spiritual€AssemblyĻor€to€the€Universal€House€of€Justice.€Generally,€if€review€is€conducted€as€a€consultativeĻprocess€involving€close€interaction€and€cooperation€between€the€author€and€the€reviewingĻbody--a€process€involving€trust€and€mutualĢĢ<¢p>respect£--the€review€process€functions€reasonably€well.€Preventing€Baha'is€from€stirring€upĻdisunity€over€administrative€decisions€can€be€difficult,€for€Baha'i€institutions€must€makeĻdelicate€decisions€about€when€to€maintain€a€sin-covering€eye€and€refuse€to€disclose€anĻindividual's€actions€to€the€entire€Baha'i€community,€and€when€to€risk€humiliation€of€theĻindividual€in€order€to€make€the€individual's€disunifying€actions€clear€to€all.ĢĢ

€€€€€€As€the€Baha'i€community€grows€in€size€and€in€international€prominence,€outsiders€willĻinevitably€focus€greater€attention€on€its€internal€workings,€and€their€comments€will€not€alwaysĻbe€positive.€Continuous€efforts€to€explain€the€Baha'i€principles€to€others€in€more€creative€andĻclear€ways€will€be€necessary,€as€will€be€a€higher€standard€of€institutional€maturity€and€personalĻholiness€in€the€Baha'i€community.€ĢĢ€------------------€ĢĢExperiences€with€Anti-Baha'i€Polemic€
€in€German-speaking€CountriesĢĢŠ š0@,0 Š€Udo€Schaefer€ĢĢ

€€€€€From€the€beginning€of€this€century,€criticism€against€the€Baha'i€Faith€has€been€voiced€inĻGerman-speaking€Europe€almost€exclusively€by€Protestant€theologians,€their€Catholic€Ģ<¢p>counterparts£€preferring€a€policy€of€simply€ignoring€the€Faith.€Two€monographs,€basedĻmainly€on€material€published€by€the€Comte€¢Gobineau£€and€E.€G.€Browne,€were€published€inĻ1911€and€1949.€These€were€highly€critical,€but€not€polemical.€Anti-Baha'i€polemics€startedĻwith€the€publication€of€manuals€on€"sects"€byĢĢ<¢p>ecclesiastical£€publishers,€notably€in€a€book€by€Paul€¢Scheurlen£€brought€out€in€1921.€AfterĻthis€early€attack€it€was€not€until€the€¢1960s£€that€polemical€writings€appeared,€primarily€inĻpublications€brought€out€by€a€Protestant€agency,€the€¢Evangelische£€¢Zentralstelle£€¢fuer£Ļ¢Weltanschauungsfragen£€(founded€in€1960).€This€agency€and€its€head,€Dr.€Kurt€¢Hutten£,Ļadopted€a€very€polemical€tone,€especially€¢focusing£€on€Baha'i€Administration,€in€which€Dr.Ļ¢Hutten£€saw€the€"Fall€from€Grace€of€Baha'ism."€He€regarded€the€very€small€group€of€GermanĻCovenant-breakers,€adherents€of€Ruth€White€who€called€themselves€"free€Baha'is,"€as€the€trueĻcommunity.€In€a€chapter€of€his€manual€on€"Sects"€Dr.€¢Hutten£€harshly€attacked€the€Baha'iĻcommunity,€its€structures€and€institutions.€Ģ

€€€€€€A€new€chapter€in€the€history€of€opposition€opened€with€the€publication€in€1981€of€aĻmalevolent€monograph€on€the€Baha'i€Faith€written€by€a€Swiss€Covenant-breaker,€FrancescoĻ¢Ficicchia£.€The€fact€that€this€work€was€published€by€the€above-mentioned€¢Evangelische£Ļ¢Zentralstelle£€indicates€the€adoption€by€the€ecclesiastical€opposition€of€a€new€strategy,€namelyĻthe€¢instrumentalization£€of€dissidents€(Covenant-breakers)€for€apologetic€purposes.€Ģ<¢p>Ficicchia£'s€highly€polemical€work€and€his€entries€on€"Baha'ism"€in€two€renowned€CatholicĻ¢encyclopedias£,€which€present€the€Faith€in€a€distorted€and€cynical€manner,€have€had€a€disastrousĻimpact€on€the€public€reputation€of€the€Faith.€In€order€to€avoid€the€arena€of€religiousĻcontroversy,€the€German-speaking€¢Baha£'¢i£€communities€remained€silent€for€fourteen€years,€aĻsilence€that€was€interpreted€as€an€endorsement€of€¢Ficicchia£'s€erroneous€statements€and€absurdĻconclusions.€Ģ

€€€€€€At€the€instigation€of€the€Universal€House€of€Justice,€a€rebuttal€of€¢Ficicchia£'sĻpublications€has€been€written,€and€was€published€at€the€recent€Frankfurt€Book€Fair.Ļ¢Desinformation£€¢als£€¢Methode£:€Die€¢Baha'ismus£-¢Monographie£€des€F.€¢Ficicchia£,€by€Udo€Schaefer,ĻNicola€¢Towfigh£,€and€Ulrich€¢Gollmer£,€carefully€¢analyzes£€and€refutes€¢Ficicchia£'s€perfidious,Ļcleverly€thought-out€attack€on€the€religion€of€Baha'u'llah.€ĢĢĢ------------------€ĢĢReligious€Definitions€and€Religious€Polemics--
€Baha'i€in€PopularĻHandbooks€of€ReligionĢĢĢ¢Margit£€Warburg€ĢĢ

€€€€€For€the€general€public€popular€handbooks€are€important€sources€of€information€on€theĻvarious€religious€groups€in€contemporary€Western€society,€including€Baha'i.€These€booksĻreach€a€wide€circle€of€readers,€and€it€is€of€interest€to€study€how€Baha'i€is€presented€in€suchĻliterature.€I€have€systematically€surveyed€about€fifty€such€handbooks;€most€of€them€areĻintended€to€be€neutral€and€fact-oriented€while€some€are€distinctly€polemic€against€Baha'i€andŠ š0@,0 Šother€new€religions,€new€religious€movements,€sects,€cults,€or€whatever€terms€are€used.€Ģ

€€€€€€Baha'i€authors--both€scholars€and€non-scholars--always€call€Baha'i€a€religion€or€a€faith,Ļand€the€official€Baha'i€position€is€against€the€use€of€the€word€"sect."€A€comparison€ofĻhandbooks€written€by€Baha'i€scholars€with€anti-Baha'i€polemic€handbooks€shows,€however,€noĻconvincing€pattern€of€whether€Baha'i€is€called€a€religion€or€a€sect,€neither€among€scholars€norĻamong€non-Baha'i€antagonists.€The€use€of€the€word€"sect"€is€therefore€notĢĢ<¢p>necessarily£€a€token€of€anti-Baha'i€polemics.ĢĢ

€€€€€€The€presentations€of€Baha'i€in€the€polemic€handbooks€are,€with€few€exceptions,Ļcharacterized€by€diffuse€and€general€anti-cult€attitudes,€such€as€accusations€ofĻ"youth-napping,"€rather€than€by€specific€anti-Baha'i€statements.€A€few€polemic€statementsĢĢ<¢p>directed£€against€Baha'i€are,€however,€interesting€to€¢analyze£€in€greater€depth.€€ĢĢ------------------€ĢĢĢ¢Taqiyyih£€and€¢Kitman£:€Reflections€on€the€Practice€Ģof€Dissimulation€in€the€Babi€and€Baha'i€Religions€ĢĢ¢Kamran£€¢Ekbal£€ĢĢ

€€€€€Enemies€of€the€Baha'i€Faith,€sometimes€even€scholarly€critics€writing€not€necessarily€inĻpolemical€terms€in€opposition€to€the€Faith,€often€mingle€true€and€correct€information€with€falseĻand€incorrect€information€about€the€Cause.€Out€of€a€sense€of€duty€and€devotion€to€their€Faith,ĻBaha'i€authors€who€wish€to€refute€such€accusations€often€tend€to€denounce€all€accusations,Ļwithout€taking€enough€care€about€the€details€of€particular€issues.€Even€Baha'i€scholars€wellĻacquainted€with€methods€of€scientific€research€respond€sometimes€in€such€an€¢apologetical£Ļmanner,€which,€beside€easily€proving€to€be€a€boomerang,€may€be€very€well€regarded€as€aĻsymptom€of€a€superficial€knowledge€that€exists€among€Baha'is€in€regard€to€diverse€aspects€ofĻthe€history€and€theology€of€their€own€religion.ĢĢ

€€€€€€One€such€example€that€will€be€discussed€in€this€paper€is€¢taqiyyih£,€or€dissimulation,Ļbrought€as€an€accusation€against€the€Baha'i€Faith€and€its€adherents€from€the€earliest€times€inĻboth€Western€and€Eastern€polemics.€Although€Babi€and€Baha'i€sources€provide€sufficientĻevidence€that€¢taqiyyih£€was€¢practiced£ĢĢ<¢p>abundantly£€by€the€early€believers€and€that€this€practice€remained€in€use€at€least€until€theĻministry€of€the€Guardian,€and€in€spite€of€references€to€the€fact€that€the€Bab,€Baha'u'llah,€andĻ'Abdu'l-¢Baha£€ordained€and€in€one€way€or€another€even€¢practiced£€¢taqiyyih£€themselves,€Baha'iĻauthors€generally€try€to€rebut€this€en€masse.€€€€€€The€aim€of€this€paper€is€to€provide€examples€ofĻthe€practice€of€¢taqiyyih£€among€Babis€and€early€Baha'i€in€order€to€discuss€the€proper€means€andĻattitude€for€handling€such€and€similar€issues€in€the€future.€ĢĢĢ------------------ĢĢŠ š0@,0 Š¢Azali£€OppositionĢĢĢ€Nicola€¢Towfigh£€ĢĢœ

€€€€€When€thinking€of€the€well-known€British€orientalist€Edward€Granville€BrowneĻ(1862-1926),€Baha'is€in€the€West€usually€remember€the€wonderful€description€of€hisĻimpressions€when€he€had€an€audience€with€Baha'u'llah€in€Bahji.€Thus€many€Western€Baha'isĻbelieve€that€Browne€was€an€admirer€and€supporter€of€the€Baha'i€Faith,€which€is€not€at€all€theĻcase:€Browne€did€not€remain€an€objective€spectator€and€scholar€but€took€more€and€more€theĻAzalis's€side.€He€adopted€Azali€views€and€statements,€and€developed€theories€in€their€support.ĢĢ

€€€€€€One€main€theory€concerns€Mirza€Yahya€Azal's€character€and€station.€It€is€true€thatĻMirza€Yahya€was€the€Bab's€nominee€and€recognized€chief€of€the€Babi€community,€but€he€wasĻnot€His€successor€or€vicegerent.€Browne€saw€in€him€a€peace-loving,€contemplative€and€gentleĻperson€designated€by€the€Bab€to€be€His€vali€and€successor.€Browne€not€only€misjudged€MirzaĻYahya's€character€and€personal€integrity,€but€also€his€function.€€€€€€Other€misconceptions€areĻrelated€to€this€central€misunderstanding.€Browne€tried€to€prove€Azal's€unrestricted€leadershipĻby€saying€it€was€he€who€first€came€to€Baghdad€whereas€Baha'u'llah€followed€him,€or€it€was€heĻwho€ordered€Baha'u'llah's€return€to€Baghdad€after€His€retirement€to€Kurdistan.€Of€course,€bothĻare€not€the€case.€He€also€adopted€the€Azali€theory€of€the€numerical€significance€of€the€wordsĻGhiyath€and€Mustaghath,€assuming€that€the€Promised€One€of€the€Bab€would€not€appear€beforeĻa€lapse€of€1511€to€2001€years.ĢĢ

€€€€€€Browne's€publication€of€Kitab-i-Nuqtatu'l-Kaf,€which€he€himself€regarded€as€a€strongĻAzali€weapon€of€attack,€once€more€showed€his€tendency€to€support€the€Azalis.€Attributing€itsĻauthorship€to€an€early€Babi€believer€called€Haji€Mirza€Jani€Kashani,€he€described€the€book€asĻmost€interesting€and€regarded€it€as€a€valuable€and€authentic€work.€As€the€book€speaks€highlyĻof€Mirza€Yahya€Azal€and€his€station,€Browne€even€accused€the€Baha'is€of€having€intentionallyĻtried€to€supersede€and€suppress€it€by€spreading€Tarikh-i-Jadid.ĢĢ

€€€€€€Another€misunderstanding€concerns€the€date€of€Baha'u'llah's€declaration€as€aĻManifestation€of€God.€Browne€mentioned€different€dates€and€finally€drew€the€conclusion€thatĻthe€declaration€must€have€happened€in€1866-67€rather€than€in€1863.ĢĢ

€€€€€€This€paper€will€deal€with€all€these€misconceptions,€with€their€origins€traced€out€andĻrefuted.€ĢĢ------------------€ĢĢThe€Position€of€Mirza€Yahya€Nuri€Subh-i-Azal:€Some€Aspects
€ofĻAzali€Anti-Baha'i€Polemic€and€Baha'i€Apologetics€ĢĢStephen€Lambden€ĢĢ

€€€€€The€exact€nature€of€the€position€of€Mirza€Yahya€Nuri,€Subh-i-Azal€("The€Morn€ofĻEternity,"€1830-1912)€following€the€martyrdom€of€the€Bab€(1850)€has€long€been€a€subject€ofĻBaha'i-Azali€debate.€The€Bab€wrote€a€number€of€Tablets€to€Mirza€Yahya€and€Baha'u'llah€asĻwell€as€an€Arabic€Wasiyyat€namih€("Will€and€Testament")€in€which€(among€other€things)Š š0@,0 ŠYahya's€position€and€future€role€were€indicated.€From€1849-50€Yahya€was€given€elevatedĻtitles€and€a€key€future€role€in€the€religion€of€the€Bab.€The€nature€of€this€role€has€been€variouslyĻunderstood€and€widely€Ģ

misrepresented€so€as€to€discredit€the€purpose€and€claims€of€Baha'u'llah.€Ģ

€€€€€€No€academically€informed€biography€of€Yahya€has€to€date€been€written.€His€numerousĻPersian€and€Arabic€writings€have€hardly€€been€studied€at€all.€The€quasi-Babi€musings€andĻanti-Baha'i€sentiments€of€Yahya€and€his€Azali€supporters€are€expressed€in€a€multitude€ofĻPersian€and€Arabic€writings€and€a€few€texts€in€western€languages.€Directly€or€indirectly€theyĻcontinue€to€exert€a€distortive€influence€upon€the€understanding€of€the€Babi€and€Baha'iĻreligions.€€€€€€€Towards€the€end€of€his€mission€the€Bab€wrote€to€Baha'u'llah€(1817-1892)Ļthrough€Mirza€Yahya,€referring€to€him€by€means€of€the€abjad€value€of€his€name€(Husayn-'Ali€=Ļ238),€instructing€him€to€protect€and€take€care€of€his€half-brother.€This€is€exactly€whatĻBaha'u'llah€did€for€more€than€a€decade;€according€to€his€Ģ

Lawh-i-Sarraj€for€no€less€than€twenty€years€(1846€to€1866?).€Prior€to€his€semi-secretĻRidvan€declaration€(April€22-May€3,€1863)€and€complete€break€with€Yahya€during€theĻmid-Adrianople€period€("The€Most€Great€Separation"€1866)€Baha'u'llah€basically€acted€as€aĻleading€Babi;€to€quote€Shoghi€Effendi€he€"appeared€in€the€guise€of,€and€continued€to€labor€as,Ļone€of€the€foremost€disciples€of€the€Bab"€(God€Passes€By,€128).€This€initial€support€of€YahyaĻis€reflected€in€such€early€Tablets€as€the€pre-Kurdistan€Lawh-i-kull€al-Ta'am€("Tablet€of€AllĻFood"€c.€1270€=€late€1853-54)€and€the€(fragmentary)€Surat€al-kifaya€("The€Sura€of€theĻSufficiency"€1854-57?).€It€is€somewhat€more€explicitly€stated€in€later€Tablets,€including€theĻSurat€al-haykal€("The€Sura€of€the€Temple"€c.€1873?)€where€we€read€of€one€upon€whom€wasĻsprinkled€a€"dewdrop"€from€the€"Fathomless€Deep€of€the€Ocean€of€Knowledge"€and€who€wasĻelevated€to€such€an€extent€that€"all€[Babis]€rose€up€in€praise€of€him€[Yahya]."€Baha'u'llahĻprotected€Yahya€and€even€revealed€Tablets€which€were€dispatched€under€his€name.ĢĢ

€€€€€€Despite€the€educative€and€loving€care€extended€by€Baha'u'llah€to€Yahya,€his€youngerĻhalf-brother€ultimately€attempted€to€kill€him,€and€had€earlier€pronounced€the€death€sentenceĻupon€the€prominent€Babi€Mirza€Asadu'llah€Khu'i,€entitled€Dayyan€("the€Judge")€by€the€Bab.€Ģ

€€€€€€In€view€of€his€half-brother's€politically€subversive€activities€and€murderous€attempts€toĻrepress€Babi€challenges€to€his€inadequate€leadership€role--reflected€in€such€writings€as€hisĻpossibly€early€Kitab€al-wahid€(185?)€and€al-Mustayqiz€("Sleeper€Awakened,"€c.1854-55)--it€isĻastonishing€that€Baha'u'llahĢĢ

maintained€a€'noble€silence,'€a€'messianic€secret'€for€so€long€(from€1850€to€1863-66).€Ģ

€€€€€€According€to€Baha'i€sources€it€was€the€corruption€of€Yahya€by€Sayyid€MuhammmadĻIsfahani€(d.€1872)--the€Antichrist€of€the€Babi€dispensation--which€led€him€to€hubristicĻself-deification€and€ungodly€ways.ĢĢ

€€€€€€It€was€ultimately€during€the€mid-1860s€that€Baha'u'llah€made€a€complete€break€withĻYahya€and€began€to€proclaim€his€own€divine€mission€more€openly€to€the€Babis€and€to€allĻmankind.€This€break€was€expressed€scripturally€with€the€revelation€of€one€of€the€severalĻTablets€entitled€Surat€al-Amr€("The€Sura€of€the€Command").€Hundreds,€if€not€thousands€ofĻthe€Tablets€of€Baha'u'llah€of€the€Adrianople€period€(1863-68)€counter€the€contentions€of€theĻsupporters€of€Mirza€Yahya,€Subh-i-Azal€(=€early€Azali€Babism)€e.g.€the€Lawh-i-SarrajĻ(c.1867)€and€Kitab-i-Badi'€("The€Wondrous€Book"€1867).ĢĢ

€€€€€€Anti-Baha'i€Azali€polemic€has€long€directly€or€indirectly€informed€modern€orientalistĻscholarship,€including€the€writings€of€E.€G.€Browne€(d.€1926)€and€of€A.€L.€M.€Nicholas€(d.Š š0@,0 Š1939),€who,€in€1933,€wrote€his€brief€quasi-Azali€Qui€est€le€successeur€du€Bab?€This€influenceĻis€also€marked€in€the€anti-Baha'i€writings€of€Christian€opponents€of€the€Baha'i€Faith.€WithoutĻadequate€Ģ

consultation€of€primary€sources€Christian€missionary€and€other€anti-Baha'i€writers€haveĻrepeated€Azali€contentions€andĢĢ

misrepresented€the€relationship€between€Baha'u'llah€and€his€younger€half-brother.€AnĻexample€of€this€is€to€be€found€in€the€Presbyterian€missionary€William€M.€Miller's€The€Baha'iĻFaith:€Its€History€and€Teachings€(South€Pasadena:€William€Carey€Library,€1974)€which€makesĻmuch€use€of€materials€supplied€by€Jelal€Azal€(d.€1971),€an€anti-Baha'i€grandson€of€MirzaĻYahya.€Ģ

€€€€€€In€this€paper€these€and€related€doctrinal€issues€will€be€examined€with€a€view€toĻclarifying€the€Baha'i€viewpoint€and€exposing€the€inadequacy€of€aspects€of€neo-Azali€anti-Baha'iĻpolemic.€ĢĢ€------------------€ĢĢ€The€Legal€Basis€of€Islamic€Opposition€to€the€Baha'i€Faith€€ĢMoojan€Momen€ĢĢ

€€€€€From€its€inception€as€the€Babi€movement€in€1844,€the€Baha'i€Faith€has€been€the€subjectĻof€attacks€from€Muslim€religious€leaders€in€different€parts€of€the€Islamic€world.€This€paper€isĻan€attempt€to€look€at€the€basis€for€these€attacks€in€Islamic€law.€In€Islamic€jurisprudence,Ļpeople€are€divided€into€those€who€believe€(mu'minun,€and€who€are€therefore€Muslims)€andĻunbelievers€(kafirun).€The€unbelievers€may€then€be€divided€into€a€number€of€categories:€AhlĻal-Kitab€(People€of€the€Book);€Mushrikun€(polytheists);€Murtadd€(apostates);€and€Mulhid€orĻZindiq€(heretics).€€Ģ

This€paper€looks€at€a€number€of€legal€opinions€(fatwas)€and€court€verdicts€which€haveĻbeen€issued€in€the€context€of€Islamic€law€over€the€years€in€a€geographical€spread€from€BurmaĻto€Egypt€in€order€to€determine€what€has€been€the€basis€in€Islamic€law€on€which€Baha'is€haveĻbeen€condemned.€€ĢĢ€------------------€ĢĢPossible€Criticisms€of€the€Baha'i€Faith€
€From€A€Feminist€PerspectiveĢĢĢLil€Abdo€ĢĢ

€€€€€The€claim€of€the€Baha'i€Faith€to€uphold€the€equality€of€men€and€women€as€a€principleĻattracts€attention€from€others€who€would€also€claim€to€be€advancing€the€cause€of€sex€equality,Ļalbeit€from€different€perspectives.€The€purpose€of€this€paper€is€to€look€at€criticisms€of€the€FaithĻand€the€prospect€of€future€attacks€which€may€be€made€because€of€its€teachings€on€sex€equalityĻand€to€consider€appropriate€responses.ĢĢ

€€€€€€There€would€appear€to€be€a€number€of€likely€sources€of€criticism.€Secular€feministsĻmay€consider€the€Baha'i€Faith€yet€another€patriarchal€religion€and€dismiss€it€as€such.€TheĻemergence€of€€feminist€theologies€within€other€faith€communities€means€that€the€Faith€may€beĻattacked€from€a€theological€standpoint€on€this€issue.€While€some€religious€traditions€›mayŠ š0@,0 Šaccuse€Baha'is€of€undermining€the€"God-given"€superiority€of€the€male.ĢĢ

€€€€€€The€following€points€have€been€identified€as€possible€sources€of€criticism:€theĻineligibility€of€women€to€serve€on€the€Universal€House€of€Justice--this€is€of€particular€interestĻto€supporters€of€women€priests€within€the€Christian€tradition;€the€intestacy€laws€in€theĻ¢Kitab£-¢i£-¢Aqdas£;€the€dowry€laws€with€particular€reference€to€the€virginity€refund€clause;€theĻexemption€of€menstruating€women€from€obligatory€prayers€and€the€implication€of€menstrualĻtaboo;€the€exemption€of€women€from€pilgrimage;€the€use€of€¢androcentric£€language€and€maleĻpronouns€in€texts;€the€emphasis€on€traditional€morality€and€family€values;€the€restriction€ofĻsexual€orientation€to€heterosexuality;€the€claim€that€'Abdu'l-¢Baha£€added€nothing€new€toĻthinking€on€this€issue,€but€plagiarized€contemporary€feminists;€and€the€failure€of€Baha'is€toĻimplement€the€teachings€on€equality€within€their€own€community.ĢĢ

€€€€€€There€has€been€a€tendency€on€the€part€of€Baha'is€to€make€extravagant€claimsĻconcerning€this€matter€with€very€little€evidence€to€substantiate€them.€There€has€been€lack€of€Ģ<¢p>acknowledgement£€that€the€Baha'i€understanding€of€sexual€equality€is€different€from€that€ofĻsecular€feminists.€At€this€time€there€have€been€few€formal€attacks€on€the€Faith€from€feministsĻbut€they€cannot€be€long€in€coming.€What€seems€to€already€be€occurring€is€that€individualĻwomen€are€rejecting€the€Faith€on€these€issues.€In€this€paper€I€will€address€the€above€points€andĻconsider€possible€responses.€ĢĢĢ------------------€ĢĢParadoxes€and€Facts€of€the€Anti-Baha'i€Polemic€on€¢the€Territory€of€theĻEuropean€Part€of€the€Former€¢U.S.S.R.£€ĢĢMarina€Pavlova€ĢĢ<¢p>I£.€PreambleĢĢ

€€€€€1)€A€brief€survey€of€the€history€of€the€beginning€of€the€Baha'i€Faith€in€Russia.
€€€€€Ļ2)€The€role€of€Kiev,€Ukraine€(as€the€former€Kiev,€Russia),€in€the€general€context€of€teachingĻthe€Faith€among€the€Slav€population€of€the€¢C.I.S.£ĢĢ<¢p>II£.€Main€Sources€of€Resistance€to€the€Faith€
Ģ€€€€€1)€Mentality€and€historically-determined€reality€in€the€context€of€culture.
€€€€€€2)ĻResistance€of€individuals€and€official€structures€on€the€subjective€and€objective€levels.€Ģ<¢p>III£.€Methods€and€Forms€of€Resistance€to€the€¢FaithĢ€€€€€1)€¢AuthoritiesĢ€€€€€€€€€€a)€Bureaucratic€¢approachĢ€€€€€€€€€€b)€Non-¢competenceĢ€€€€€€€€€€c)€Self-arbitrarily€¢approachĢ€€€€€2)€Attitude€of€other€Confessions€and€religious€trends€from€a€viewpoint€of€the€degree€ofĻreligious€tolerance€in€terms€of€the€possibilities€of€starting€interreligious€dialogue.
€€€€€€€€€€€a)ĻPositive€attitudes€of€¢Hinduists£,€¢Berikh£€followers€and€¢others€€€€€€€€€€€b)€Tolerant€attitudes€ofĻJudaists,€¢Buddhists€€€€€€€€€€€c)€Elements€of€aggression€in€the€attitudes€of€Christians€andĻMuslims€ĢŠ š0@,0 Š<¢p>IV£.€Ways€of€Finding€Optimum€Forms€of€Interaction€With€Non-Baha'i€¢World€€€€€€1)ĻInvestigation€and€evaluation€of€all€possible€sources€and€reasons€for€resistance€to€€the€Baha'iĻFaith.
Ģ€€€€€2)€Baha'i€approach€towards€solving€the€problem,€taking€into€account€the€specific€featuresĻof€the€history,€culture,€and€the€mentality€of€the€society.ĢĢĢ€------------------€ĢĢ

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